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Business
Administration is one of the hot subjects in college curriculum all over
the world nowadays. In this
area, however, Buddhism has its own unique management theory and practice,
which has evolved over a long period of time.
As early as Sakyamuni Buddha¡¦s time, the Sangha community has had
a well-developed administration system.
Over time, the system endured numerous changes and evolved
sophisticated methods of management and leadership.
In the Avatamsaka Suttra, commenting on the ¡§three
refuges¡¨, Buddha said: ¡§Taking refuge in the Sangha means one should
make the Sanga a well-administered and harmonious community for all
sentient beings.¡¨ From this
comment, it can be seen that Buddhist Sangha communities were
organizations which excelled in managerial skills.
Management:
Buddha¡¦s Approach
After the Buddha was enlightened, he taught the Dharma at Deer Park to his former attendants. The five bhiksus became the first Sangha group. In time the community grew into a congregation that included the seven groups of disciples, i.e., the bhiksus, the bhiksunis, the siksammanas, the sraamaneras, the sramanerikas, the upasakas, and the upasikas. Among them, about 1,250 monastics were usually at the Buddha¡¦s side. How did the Buddha manage such a huge group of people? |
1.
Equality under the Dharma:
The
Buddha teaches that all sentient beings have Buddha nature and that all humans
are inherently equal. In effect,
his teaching dismantled the societal caste system prevalent in the India at that
time. He states that all things
arise from causes and conditions, not created by gods or God.
True deliverance depends on the Four Noble Truths and The Three Dharma
Seals. Buddha frequently made the following comments: ¡§I myself am just a
member of the Sangha¡¨ and ¡§I do not govern, the Dharma governs.¡¨
Buddha never considered himself ¡§leader,¡¨ rather he let the truth
govern. The Sangha community was
ruled by the members¡¦ respect for moral conduct.
Upon admission, each member had to give up his/her previous social
status, wealth, fame, and other privileges.
All external classifications and differentiations were disregarded.
Members differed only in stages of internal cultivation.
The operation of the Sangha community was based on mutual respect and
love, and sometimes on the order of seniority.
Thus, the bhiksus, bhiksunis, and the others each had their own rules. When disputes arose, the ¡§Seven Reconciliation Rules¡¨
made by the Buddha were followed to settle the conflict.
2.
Decentralized leadership:
The
Buddha, as the head of the Sangha community, led by his teaching and by
establishing the precepts for the group. He
selected knowledgeable and virtuous bhiksus and bhiksunis to be the ¡§ins-
tructing¡§ monastics to teach the Dharma and precepts.
Among them, he further selected the elders to counsel, to advise, and to
monitor the progress of the monastics under their supervision.
3.
Shared support and responsibility:
When
the initial Sangha of the five bhiksus was formed immediately after the
Buddha¡¦s enlightenment, the ¡§Four Principles of Living¡¨ was laid down to
guide them toward virtuous living: ¡§Eat only food from alms, wear only
cast-off clothing, abide only under trees, and take only discarded medicine.¡¨
Further, the monastics were warned to shun eight evil possessions that
were considered to be hindrances to their practice, i.e., houses and gardens,
plants, grains and crops, servants and slaves, pets and animals, money and
jewels, utensils and tools, and decorated beds.
As the size of the Sangha community increased, and in response to the
problem of the rainy season and constant requests from their benefactors, the
rules were modified to allow receipt of donated clothes, food, houses, and
gardens. But regardless of the
summer retreat during the rainy season, and throughout ordinary daily life
during the rest of the year, a communal form of living was maintained.
The communal rule required that except for each monastic¡¦s own clothing
and bowls, all other supplies, tools, bedding, houses, and gardens were public
goods, not to be individually possessed. Repair and maintenance of equipment and
tools were distributed among the members. In
each of the Sangha residences, an elder was elected to lead the daily operation,
teach the Dharma, maintain the code of conduct, and channel any speech and
information delivered by the Buddha. Although
the lifestyle changed somewhat over time, all Sangha communities still followed
the basic principle of an alms system, as well as sharing support and
responsibilities.
4.
Mutual respect and harmony:
Guided
by the Dharma, the Sangha community practices the ¡§Six Points of Reverent
Harmony¡¨ in communal living. They
are: (1) doctrinal unity in views and explanations to ensure common views and
understanding; (2) moral unity in observing the precepts to achieve equality for
all under the rules, (3) economic unity in community of goods to effect fair
distribution of economic interests, (4) mental unity in belief to provide mutual
support in spiritual cultivation, (5) oral unity in speech to nurture
com-passion and love, (6) bodily unity in behavior to assure nonviolence and
harmonious living.
5.
Communication and interaction:
Buddha
periodically convened all members of the Sangha community on the eighth and
fourteenth or fifteenth of each month to recite the precepts.
Such gatherings provided an excellent opportunity for interaction among
the members and a way of fostering shared values for productive and harmonious
living.
6.
Democratic governing:
The
¡§Karma Assembly¡¨ system was the highest authority governing monastic life.
The goal of the system was to promote a democratic way of life.
The Karma Assembly Meetings were regularly convened on the fifteenth of
each month. At these meetings,
members of the Assembly reviewed any violations of the precepts that occurred
during the month, determined the appropriate discipline for the offender, and
decided how it would be carried out. There
were two types of karma cases: (1) cases involving disputes and violations, and
(2) cases not involving disputes and violations.
The former dealt with disputes and disagreements among monastics or
violations of precepts in which right or wrong had to be determined.
The latter dealt with the appropriateness of the monastics¡¦ daily
behavior and their proper guidance, or the admission of a new member into the
Sangha community. The Karma
Assembly provided a formal and rigorous mechanism to pro-mote fellowship,
harmony, and mutual support of the Sangha community.
It enabled the community to become an ideal moral society where the four
all-embracing virtues of giving, affectionate speech, beneficial deeds, and
teamwork were always practiced.
In
the twelve divisions of Buddhist Tripitaka, discussions related to management
are everywhere. Examples from two familiar sutras are illustrated below:
1.
Management Perspective from the Amitabha Sutra:
In the
Amitabha Sutra, the Western Pureland of Ultimate Bliss built by the Amitabha
Buddha is an exemplary model of management excellence. In the Western Pureland,
there are seven levels of parapets and balustrades, seven layers of curtains and
networks of precious stones, seven rows of spices trees, seven-storied pavilions
decorated with seven jewels, and eight lakes filled with pure water.
The air vibrates with celestial harmonies.
The streets are paved with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. The trees and flowers exude delicate fragrance and spices.
All these numerous decorations and adornments make it the most beautiful
land. In this wonderful land, there
are no traffic accidents; all traffic moves smoothly.
There are no quarrels or bickering; everyone is well behaved.
There is no private ownership; there is no need, given the perfect
economic system. There are no
crimes or victims; everyone is absolutely safe and tries to live in peace and
help each other.
The
Amitabha Buddha is not only an expert in ecological management, but also an
expert in human resource management. He
guides the spiritual development of sentient beings, teaching them to re-cite
his name with mindfulness. Everyone
in this pureland is guaranteed to never recede from his/her practice.
In this land of ultimate bliss, everyone is respectful, compassionate,
peaceful, and joyful.
2.
Management Perspective from the Lotus Sutra (Avalokitesvara¡¦s Universal
Gate Chapter):
Avalokitesvara is a remarkable
expert in management. He/she
manages people by relieving their suffering, bestowing upon them virtues and
wisdom, and satisfying all of their needs.
He/she transforms himself/herself into thirty-two different identities to
facilitate his/her edification of people. The
Chapter of Universal Gate mentions that ¡§Depending on what identity is most
conducive to the deliverance of a sentient being, Avalokitesvara will transform
himself/herself into that image to elucidate the Dharma.¡¨
With his/her great compassion, he/she relieves people from suffering and
brings them joy. A modern manager has to be equipped with Avalokitesvara¡¦s
power of accommodating people¡¦s needs. He
or she has to establish effective measures to solve problems in modern
organizations. One can learn an
enormous amount from Avalokitesvara dedication to ¡§responding to whoever is
desperate and wherever there¡¦s danger¡¨ and ¡§forever delivering sentient
beings from the sea of suffering.¡¨
In
Chinese, the phrase ¡§Groves of Trees¡¨ refers to a monastery where monastics
live. It has the con-notation of a
place where weeds do not grow and the trees are upright due to the presence of
specific rules and measures. Buddhism
strongly emphasizes a congenial relationship between an individual and the
group. Thus, communal rules such as
the ¡§Six Points of Reverent Harmony¡¨ and the ¡§Rules of Ethics¡¨,
instituted by Chan Master Bai Zhang, existed.
The management of a Chinese monastery relies on principles such as
self-commitment, self-monitoring, and self-discipline.
The goal is to create a congruous Sangha community so that the Dharma can
dwell in this world permanently. The
Chinese monastery thus placed its management emphasis on shared responsibility
and a harmonious group relationship. The system can be summarized in the following four
characteristics:
1.
Governing by Virtue:
In
the monastery, all property is publicly owned.
There are rules to host visiting monastics from the ten directions.
In a public monastery that is open to all, the abbot is chosen externally
from renowned elders of the ten directions.
In a private monastery that is not open to the public, the abbot is
selected from internal elders who have distinguished themselves in virtue and
knowledge.
2.
Equality in Labor:
Chinese
Chan monasteries rely heavily on collective farming. The principle of equal labor is strictly followed. Everyone,
regardless of rank or seniority, has to participate in fieldwork.
The Chan Master Bai Zhang set a perfect example when he insisted: ¡§If I
did not work today, I will not eat today.¡¨
3.
Shared Responsibility:
Led
by the abbot, a monastery usually divides the responsibilities and tasks among
members. Everyone has his/her own duties, with each supporting the other.
The personnel assignments are categorized into a dichotomy of
¡§administrator¡¨ versus ¡§manual or operational¡¨, internal service versus
external ser-vice. The leader¡¦s
sole goal is to serve the Sanga community by maintaining the harmonious order of
the monastery. The
Chan Monastery Rules of Proper Conduct says, ¡§The monastery exists for its
members. To edify members, the
elder is elected. To mentor
members, the upper-seat is designated. To
uphold members, a director is chosen. The
job of a kamadana is to maintain accord among members by distributing duties
fairly. The job of a cook is to
take care of member¡¦s food. A
general affair administrative is installed to plan the operation for all
members. A treasurer is assigned to
handle financial matters. A clerk
writes and maintains the records for members.
A librarian keeps the Tripitaka safe for members.
The receptionist welcomes guests of the members.
An attendant is a messenger for members. A security guard watches clothes and bowls for members.
A medicine specialist prepares medicine for members.
A bathing-room host provides bathing services to members.
The wood-collector is to wood up before the approach of winter.
The fire-tender is to make sure adequate wood and charcoal for the
burners, before meditation and breakfast. Alms-beggar
gathers offerings from the street for members.
The foremen of gardens, mills, and farms produce food for members. Maintenance workers clean the facilities for members.
Housekeepers serve members.¡¨ Well-defined
job positions and a complete division of labor are important factors driving the
success and growth of an organization.
4.
Code of Communal Living:
In
addition to the Buddhist precepts, Chinese Monasteries have developed a set of
rules governing the daily operation of monastery life. For example, Master Dao An during the Eastern Jin Dynasty
established the following three sets of rules for his followers: (1) The rules
for walking meditation, sitting meditation, sutra recital, and Dharma talks, (2)
The rules for practice, dining, and daily routines, and (3) The rules for task
assignment, renewal of vows, and repentance. The Rules of Ethics enacted by Chan Mater Bai Zhang during
the Tang Dynasty and other rules such as those in the Chan Monastery Rules of Proper Conduct are documented evidence of
monastic discipline. These
well-defined codes of conduct were instrumental in the development of the Sangha
organizations.
Several times, I was asked the
following questions: ¡§Fo Guang Shan has hundreds of temples and affiliated
organizations all over the world. How
do you lead and manage an organization of this size?¡¨ My response is always the same: ¡§Of course, there are many
ways to do it.¡¨ The followings
are four fundamental principles:
1.
No fixed association between disciples and masters:
None
of the Fo Guang Shan disciples are permanently affixed to any individual master.
All the disciples belong to the whole Buddhist order.
They are only differentiated by the time of entry into the Order, such as
1st generation, 2nd generation, 3rd generation
and so forth. Because the disciples
do not follow a certain master, there is no rivalry or competition between them.
2.
No private ownership of money or funds:
No
one in Fo Guang Shan is allowed to own property or accumulate savings.
All the money goes to the Order. Although
the members do not possess money, it does not mean that funds are not available
for their support. The Order
usually takes care of their food, clothes, travel, medicine, study abroad
experiences, and visitations, including gifts for their parents on their home
visit after shaving their head (to formally become monastic practitioners).
At Fo Guang Shan, all the money belongs to the Order, not individuals,
but every one enjoys comfortable sup-port under an excellent cooperative system.
3.
Mandatory rotation of jobs and positions:
Following
the principle that ¡§fresh water comes only from flowing water; a rolling stone
gathers no moss,¡¨ Fo Gunag Shan rotates its members¡¦ jobs and positions.
No one ¡§owns¡¨ any branch temple, worship place, or affiliated
enterprise. This year, one may be
the abbot/abbess of a particular temple. Next
year, he/she may be reassigned to another temple.
There are many benefits from job rotation.
Among them are opportunities for learning and growth, for interaction and
networking, and for gaining additional experience.
4.
Promotion and performance evaluation sys-tem:
A
member of the Fo Guang Shan Order starts with the title of ¡§Purifier,¡¨
progressing through ¡§Bachelor,¡¨ ¡§Practitioner,¡¨ to ¡§Instructor.¡¨
Advancement depends solely on each individual¡¦s effort and performance
in scholarship, Dharma practice, and service to the organization.
Because of this orderly system, Fo Guang Shan has enjoyed a smooth and
successful growth over the years.
In
addition, members of the Order are trained and assigned to positions after their
career orientations are evaluated and assessed.
For example, members are classified into the following talents:
1.) Abbot/Director: requires the intent of the Order, loyalty, vow, and commitment. Such a person should be able to deal with both superior and subordinate in a knowledgeable, virtuous, confidence, and presentable manner. He or she should master sutra recital, ceremonial rites, and elucidation of the Dharma.
2.) Public Relations: such a person should be poised and calm with a pleasant appearance. He or she should be familiar with social customs and etiquette. The person should be sociable, empathetic, active, and positive. He or she should also understand the mission and vision of the Order very well.
3.) Educator/Literati: a person appreciates humanity and is not aggressive in pursue fame or wealth. The person should be logical, philosophical, and persuasive. He or she should think critically, understanding the educational mission and style of the abbot and the need of students, and should not be involved in conflicts of interest and or political debates. He or she should be skilled in literature review, research and analysis, and teaching and advising, and should seek to be published in professional journals.
4.) Planner: the person should be insightful, innovative, familiar with data analysis, and be able to keep confidentiality and remain in the background. He or she should know how to integrate Buddhism into ordinary knowledge and be adept in written communication and in providing staff support.
5.) Other talents such as legal expert, accounting expert, and administrative expert.
Shared
vision and values are of utmost importance for an organization. The formation of shared vision and values requires a great
deal of communication and coordination within the organization.
Productive meetings are essential to establish a convergence of ideas and
opinions. For this reason, Fo Guang
Shan takes meetings very seriously. It
frequently holds meetings to shape consensus and a shared vision.
Human
resource management is another challenging aspect in management science.
Traditionally, it receives great attention in Buddhism.
I like to offer some principles regarding Humanistic Buddhism and its
application to human resource management:
1.)
Consider the strategic implication of the organization as a whole.
2.)
Divide responsibilities with well-defined job descriptions.
3.)
Know the importance of coordination.
4.)
Plan the details with best intentions.
5.)
Execute with full effort and determination.
6.)
Report frequently and timely to inform one's supervisors.
7.)
Take responsibilities and be accountable for them.
8.)
Evaluate performance and follow up.
In
addition, it is essential that between the superior and the subordinate there
should be honest communication, mutual respect, active participation,
self-motivation and evaluation with sincerity, frank-ness, and frequent
consultation and coordination.
I
also believe that a modern manager or leader should conduct himself/herself in
the following manner:
1.)
Keep smiles on the face, praises on the mouth, questions in the heart,
and anger inside the stomach.
2.) Avoid hasty and harsh reactions, choose words carefully: criticism accomplishes nothing, doubt leads to disloyalty.
3.) Treat others leniently, monitor self-strictly; give credit to others, take responsibility when something is wrong.
4.) Put aside any personal gain or loss and go forward; do not be
frustrated or obstinate.
5.)
Understand the big picture, make peace with everyone; let communication
flow freely up and down, strive for agreement.
6.)
Serve others, keep your own word; look forward and plan, understand self
and others.
7.)
Adjust and adapt, be considerate of others; take advantage of any
opportunity, make the most out of your life.
8.)
Be humorous, listen attentively; study carefully, pay respect to
other¡¦s opinions with a kind salutation.
A
leader also needs to know how to develop, cultivate, and nurture a competent
staff. He or she should be able to
recruit, train, and empower talented employees.
A common mistake committed by a superior is criticizing a subordinate
without offering any guidance. In
addition, a leader or senior executive should frequently conduct self-assessment
and ask subordinates for input in decision making.
¡§Harmony between the general and his staff¡¨ is a stabilizing force
for an organization.
What kind of administrative system should be adopted by modern monasteries? My answers are: ¡§The traditional monastery system should be integrated with modern society.¡¨ ¡§The temple should be self-sufficient economically and self-supporting financially.¡¨ ¡§Operation of enterprises compatible with Buddhism should be permitted.¡¨ ¡§The administrative core of a temple should interact closely with the surrounding community.¡¨ ¡§Effective management of human resources requires division of labor in a cooperative environment.¡¨ Furthermore, ¡§The management should try to reach ten directions and encompass past, present, and future in the decision horizon.¡¨ ¡§Give people faith, joy, hope, and skillful means.¡¨ ¡§A manager should compromise sometimes in order to make progress, and accomplish goals even with very little support.¡¨ ¡§Gain nothing but re-main joyful, put yourself into others¡¦ shoes.¡¨ ¡§Rank the Abbot's and the enterprise's priority first, your own priority second.¡¨ ¡§Consider others first, self second; Buddhism first, self second.¡¨ ¡§Respect others with sincerity, relate others with humility; live modestly but give generously; labor willingly to make others happy.¡¨ ¡§Encourage frequently, donate generously, and speak affectionately¡¨. All the above are necessary concepts and philosophies a modern manager must have to run a smooth and successful organization. How to master Buddhist Management? I believe that before one can lead, one should be led first.
The
administrative system of Buddhist monasteries has evolved over a long period of
time, with some unique variations exhibited in different time periods.
The Sangha system originally established by the Buddha followed the
principle of ¡§respecting the elders while empowering the multitude.¡¨
It gave authority to the ¡§Karma Assembly,¡¨ which has a role similar
to a parliament in a democratic society. The
Chinese monastery administrative system emphasizes personnel management and
division of labor to maximize the productivity of human resources.
Both represent excellent models of management practice.
In our search for a new management science, we should enhance both
systems by adapting them to the needs of our modern society.